Gut Microbiome-Metabolome Profiling in H. Pylori-SIBO Comorbidity

Participants underwent the 13C-urea breath test following a standardized protocol to detect active Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection. After an overnight fast (≥8 hours), baseline breath samples were collected by exhaling gently through a straw. Participants then ingested 75 mg of 13C-labeled urea dissolved in 50 mL of citric acid solution to delay gastric emptying and maximize urease exposure. A second breath sample was collected 30 minutes post-ingestion using identical procedures.

Participants underwent a standardized hydrogen-methane breath test to evaluate for small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) or carbohydrate malabsorption. After a 12-hour overnight fast, baseline breath samples were collected via controlled end-expiratory exhalation. Participants then ingested a substrate solution.